Really Long Post--"An Answer to Fear: Exploring the Practicalities of the "White Australia" Policy

So, most of you probably won't find this interesting, but I'm posting the paper I just wrote anyway. It's about the extremely racist policies that were put in place during the time of Australia's federation because of certain insecurities the nation felt b/c of their lost ties with Britain. Good stuff. Peruse as you fancy...

"An Answer to Fear: Exploring the Practicalities of the "White Australia" Policy"

The time period surrounding Australia’s decision to form a federation was a tumultuous one in many ways. The change over caused something of a crisis for the former colonies because of the loss of their close ties with Britain, which brought with it feelings of military vulnerability, economic instability, and anomie about the issue of national identity. The laws and mindsets of the White Australia Policy were an attempt to address the fears and concerns that were prevalent during the time of Federation by restricting immigration and promoting a native Australian population.

There were many reasons that it was believed that restricting immigration would help to stabilize the Federation. One of these reasons was that many Australians believed this would solve the economic problems that were facing the colonies at the time. Trade unions were a large part of promoting these beliefs, maintaining that high rates of immigration were contributing to a shortage of work for native Australians. One of the reasons pointed to was the fact that foreign labor was so cheap; it was common to pay two shillings a day for a laborer from the Pacific Islands, four for a Chinese laborer, and seven for a white laborer. The fact that foreigners were willing to work so cheaply was seen as undermining the unions’ work for a better wage. This problem was only exacerbated when foreign labor was used to break strikes. The seasonal nature of agricultural work in Australia also led to a high degree of competition between white labor and foreign labor, causing many Australians to believe that to allow the entry of any foreign labor would inevitably cause a loss of jobs for white laborers. These fears were even more deeply engraved into the Australian psyche during the gold rushes of the 1850’s, when a greater number of foreigners were coming into the country than ever before. In 1855, more than thirty ships carrying Cantonese migrants landed in Australia, by 1858 one in every ten Victorians was Chinese. After a time of heavy influx of migrants, it was feared that foreigners would never cease to pour into the country. It is understandable that people feared immigration would threaten the existing population when one considers that “The inflow of gold rush migrants in just two years exceeded the grand total of convicts who had arrived in the eighty years of transportation.”

Another reason that restricted immigration was seen as a solution to the identity crisis at the time of Federation was that it allowed Australia to establish itself as a “white man’s land” from the outset. It was largely to further these ends that the Australian Natives Association formed. By the 1870’s, native-born, white Australians had become the majority. But these increased numbers did not automatically lead to a more cohesive sense of nationhood. Many of those who had been born in Australia scorned their native land and insisted on continuing to refer to England as “home.” It was within the organization of the Australian Natives Association that this new national identity was intended to be formed. This society tried to set itself apart from similar British societies, with their old-world class distinctions. However, membership in the association remained a formal aspect, as shown by the practice of certifying members (see figure 1). These associations reinforced the idea that native Australians were white Australians, helping to give a more settled feel to the matter of identity.

Another major concern in deciding to form a federation was the militarily vulnerable position in which Australia would be left. In the 1870’s, Britain had decided to withdraw their troops and leave Australians locally responsible for their own defense. Even before this time, Australia had reason to feel anxious about their own defense simply because of their geographic isolation from the protective “mother land.” Also, the 1894 Anglo-Japanese treaty was a cause for much consternation. This treaty gave rise to a new awareness among many of Britain’s colonies that Japan had risen as a new world power, which was of especial concern to Australia because of their proximity. This led to an even great fear of the eventual prospect of occupation. It also showed Australians that Britain was still intent on pursuing its own interests in the Pacific and that they would have to take the initiative to protect their country. However, Japan was not the only restless superpower which caused some anxiety among Australians. It was also during this time that Russia was taking over Manchuria, China was being carved up by the European superpowers, America, with its demands for an “open door policy,” was making its presence felt in the Pacific, and France and Germany were not shy about participating in the land grab. All of these factors made a defensive build-up seem prudent. These feelings of military vulnerability left Australia especially sensitive to the fact that large numbers of foreigners were now attempting to enter the country.

When the idea of cutting ties with Britain was entertained, Australians developed a preoccupation with seeking to fill vast, “unsettled” areas of the country in the west and north. The thought of new immigrants coming into the country made many uneasy because of the fear that foreign settlers could eventually question their right to effective proprietorship. Trying to settle an entire continent with only four million people was not a very practicable solution, but many felt that if this was not accomplished, Australia would not be able to make a case for their claim on the land. Many bookshops of the time were stocked with novels on the theme of “invasion.” Anxious thoughts were filled with pictures of descending Chinese and Mongol hoards that would come and tear the country away from the white settlers as they, in turn, had taken it from its original inhabitants. The political cartoon in figure 2, which was run in The Bulletin, is a good example of common sentiment at the time; it shows obviously caricatured Chinese people breaking into to people’s very homes through cracks in “Deficient Immigration Laws.” It was also during this time that a republication of Gibbon’s Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire led to parallels being drawn between the demise of mighty Rome and the recent decline of power which Britain had experienced. These parallels gave rise to the fear that the time of the white race was ending and unless drastic actions were taken, they would be forced to succumb to the increasing numbers and advanced technology of Asia. These rather jingoistic fears also played a large role in the decision to restrict immigration at the turn of the century.

All of these fears and concerns led to the decision that something had to be done to restrict immigration. One of the first bills that was passed after the formation of the Federation was the Immigration Restriction Act of 1901. This act became the centerpiece of what was to be known as the White Australia policy, legislation that was aimed at excluding all non-European migrants. However, the terminology of this law could not express that explicitly. British approval was needed to allow the bill to be written into law, and Britain would not have allowed any legislation that would have offended their new Japanese allies with racist rhetoric. Therefore it was decided that the dictation test, first developed and implemented in Natal, South Africa, would be used to screen out non-European immigrants. The initial suggestion was to implement the test in English, but this was decided against because it could discourage desirable northern European migration while encouraging undesirable Japanese and African-American migration. So the specification eventually decided on was “any European language” in which the proctor should decide to conduct the test. Initially, the specification caused difficulties because most customs officers conducted the test in the language they were most comfortable with: English. Because of this oversight, four Indians were able to pass the test, which caused an immediate public outcry. Officials responded by training the customs officers to use the test to effectively bar the entry of any non-European person. From 1932 on the dictation test could be given at any time within the first five years of residency, and the test could be repeated any number of times, but it was unlikely that these loopholes ever had to be utilized, since no one managed to pass the test after 1909. It was very unlikely that someone from northern Europe would be asked to take the test at all, unless they fell into one of the other categories of immigrants that were deemed undesirable, such as those who were insane, anyone who was likely to become a public burden, any person suffering from a contagious disease, as well as prostitutes and (ironically) criminals.

Along with this piece of legislation, the Pacific Island Laborers Act was also created in 1901. The purpose of this act was to allow for the deportation of the vast majority of Pacific Islanders after the end of December 1906. Of the 10,000 Pacific Islanders living in Queensland and New South Wales at the time, only 700 were exempt from deportation. The act also imposed limits on the number of migrants from the Pacific Islands who were allowed entry before 1906 and encouraged emigration for the current population. These two laws, as well as some others passed during this time period, were intended to shape the character of the newly federated Australia, establishing a white identity and stabilizing the Commonwealth economically and defensively.

However, in spite of these well-intentioned legislations, Australians still faced a dilemma. They wanted their population to reflect their British roots, and yet they still needed to settle the “empty” regions of the country. One of the ways they sought to accomplish this was by decreasing “desirable” immigration, soliciting candidates from Britain and northern Europe. Not only was propaganda a major part of this scheme, but there was also financial assistance to encourage people to take advantage of the opportunities of Australia. Australia Unlimited, a book published by E.J. Brady, was full of lively descriptions and photos depicting the boundless opportunities the land could offer an enterprising settler. The dual nature of Australians’ attitudes towards immigration is well expressed in the political cartoon (shown in figure 3), which shows the mixed messages that many immigrants received. It is significant, too, that the immigrants portrayed are Italian, as they would have been one of the groups who received different messages based on the degree to which their appearance allowed them to assimilate into mainstream Australian culture.

However, it was not just immigration that was placed under greater government control during this time period. Another major goal of the White Australia policy was to maintain racial purity, which meant that the number of native, white Australians had to be increased. Because of the perceived health of the climate and the lifestyle of Australians, it had historically been perceived as a kind of breeding ground which would, given enough time, produce a superior race of human beings. This lofty goal was behind much of the opposition to immigration, based on the desire to keep bloodlines pure. Because the production of white male babies was seen as vital to both the defense and the development of the country, it was the Australian mother who was placed under scrutiny, especially when studies uncovered a recent drop in the birthrate. A newly formed Commission on the Decline of the Birth Rate and on the Mortality of Infants in New South Wales reported that any desire to restrict fertility was “characteristic of a decadent state of society.” Women’s use of birth control and other methods to control their fertility was seen as “selfish,” a product of their indulgent desire to enter the industrial world. Unfortunately these opinions ran against those which the mothers themselves were forming in the time after Federation. Increased levels of education for both men and women contributed to these changing ideas; the demand for more children was in conflict with the aspirations of many Australian families. It was largely considered to be more immoral to give birth to a child they couldn’t afford than to deprive their country of one more citizen. For them, having fewer children was an opportunity to be better, more dedicated parents.

However, because the need for more native Australians was so strongly felt in the public ethos, the issue of fertility became not so much a personal preference as a matter for state action. For many politicians, quantity trumped quality because of the ultimate need for a large population to perpetuate the race, win wars, and claim the land. In order to encourage their goals, the government banned the importation of contraceptives and birth control information, and introduced a “baby bonus” of five pounds for every white child born in order to discourage abortions. Not only mothers, but cities were also blamed for the decline in birth rate, and were seen as disease centers which polluted the healthy and wholesome Australian way of life. Many doctors recommended that people be sent to small country farms, which had the added bonus of providing incentive for them to have large families.

In spite of these differing opinions, both government and families agreed that it was essential to Australia’s future that the infant mortality rate be cut. Increased medical knowledge made an instant advancement in discovering how to thwart the major killer of young children: diarrhea. But the government was seeking a more all-encompassing system through improving the sanitation system, establishing infant protection acts to prevent infanticide, and improving education on mothering practices (or “mothercraft,” a term which was coined in this era). The picture in figure 4 shows a meeting of a mothering class, with all participants proudly holding a healthy and robust little one. But beyond the propaganda aspect of this image of joyful motherhood, it is also interesting to note the posters on the wall, admonishing the maintenance of a healthy diet and the reminder that babies are a woman’s “rare pearls.” It was also during this time that metropolitan areas began to establish large women’s hospitals and maternity wards as “monuments to motherhood,” as well as infant welfare centers. The photo in figure 5 shows a baby being weighed by a nurse at one such center to check the health of the baby. It was agreed during this time that better education in mothering was key to producing healthier children and families, which was in turn, key to securing the future of the nation.

However, in spite of these efforts, the baby craze never quite caught on to the degree that the government had hoped it would. Although the importation of contraceptives and birth control was banned, it was not illegal to produce them inside of the country and information concerning their use was, by this time, beyond the government’s ability to control. Furthermore, changing ideas and cultural tides rendered much of the propaganda too little, too late. But in spite of not achieving the immediate results desired, this campaign did have a lasting impact on the Australian psyche. A slogan from a New South Wales “Baby Week” broadside sums up the sentiment well: “The nation that has the babies has the future.”

The attitudes and mindsets that were prevalent during the time of Federation were reflective of the fears aroused by the loss of ties with Britain. Foremost in the minds of many Australians at the time were fears of economic instability, military invasion, and a loss of national identity. The White Australia policy sought to address the fear of economic instability by removing competition through restricted immigration. It also sought to secure the country against military invasion by prohibiting an influx of immigrants who could challenge the claim to effective proprietorship and by encouraging a baby boom to supply more Australians to fight for and fill the country. And it shaped the character of the nation by affirming a white identity through attempted removal of any foreign presence and an emphasis on bolstering the native population of Australia. Although these policies served to direct the nation through this pivotal and formational time of their history, they would prove insufficient and misguided as a lasting paradigm for future generations. However, these matters would have to sidelined, as the focus shifted to the all-encompassing problem of a Great War in Europe…